January 2026 - Minaz Jivraj My Take: Stopping Violence Before It Starts, A Behavioral Threat Assessment Perspective

Executive summary

Behavioral Threat Assessment and Management (BTAM) is an evidence-based, multidisciplinary process for identifying, investigating, assessing, and managing individuals whose behavior signals a potential pathway toward targeted violence or serious harm. BTAM does not predict violence; instead, it organizes how organizations gather facts, understand context, and develop intervention and support strategies that lower the likelihood of violence.

Over the past 25+ years, BTAM has become the leading prevention framework across K–12 schools, higher education, workplaces, public agencies, and private industry. In the United States, this work has been led by the U.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center (NTAC), the Department of Homeland Security (DHS), and numerous state-level initiatives. In Canada, parallel best-practice ecosystems have developed, including provincial school threat-assessment protocols (e.g., British Columbia ERASE / BC Threat Assessment Protocols), cross-sector Violence Threat Risk Assessment (VTRA) models, and national professional bodies such as the Canadian Association of Threat Assessment Professionals (CATAP). Canadian workplaces are further guided by federal Harassment and Violence Prevention legislation.

This article explains why BTAM matters, summarizes the supporting research, presents a step-by-step assessment and management process, outlines implementation and governance models, highlights both U.S. and Canadian frameworks, and offers practical tools, real-world examples, and operational checklists.

Why BTAM matters - the evidence and the promise

BTAM emerged from decades of empirical study into targeted violence, including workplace attacks, school shootings, stalking, domestic extremism, and public-figure threats. Research conducted by the U.S. Secret Service and later by DHS produced a striking conclusion: most individuals who carried out targeted violence were observed by others to be struggling, distressed, or demonstrating concerning behaviors before the attack occurred.

The shift from predictive profiling to behavioral prevention

Early efforts relied on personality profiles, demographic indicators, or psychological diagnoses. These approaches proved unreliable and often discriminatory. By contrast, behavioral threat assessment reframed prevention around identifiable behaviors, patterns, stressors, grievances, and pathways toward violence, all of which can be observed, reported, and addressed through support, intervention, and accountability.

Canadian research and practice reinforce the same findings

Canadian K-12 and community threat-assessment protocols (including BC’s Community Threat Assessment Protocol Guide and the Violence Threat Risk Assessment [VTRA] model used across multiple provinces) echo the same principles:

• Violence is an evolutionary process, not a spontaneous act.

• Early leakage, threats, fixation, and destabilizing stressors are often visible.

• Supports, mental health intervention, and coordinated responses can mitigate risk.

These insights have made BTAM an essential prevention strategy across Canadian school boards, universities, workplaces, and public institutions.

A cross-sector necessity

Today, BTAM programs are common in:

• U.S. and Canadian K–12 schools (CSTAG, VTRA, BC ERASE)

• Colleges and universities (Behavioral Intervention Teams / Threat Assessment Teams)

• Corporate security and HR departments

• Health care, social services, and public agencies

• Law enforcement & intelligence units

• Community and regional cross-sector partnerships

The promise of BTAM lies not in predicting violence, but in recognizing warning behaviors, organizing multidisciplinary response, and connecting people to help early; before behaviors escalate.

Core principles of BTAM

Across U.S. and Canadian guidance, the same principles consistently appear:

1. Behavior first; labels later

BTAM focuses on observable actions, communications, and situational context; not assumptions about mental illness, demographic traits, or cultural background. This reduces bias and improves accuracy.

2. Multidisciplinary collaboration

A credible assessment requires diverse perspectives; mental health, security, human resources, law enforcement, administrators, legal counsel, and community partners.

Canadian VTRA and BC ERASE emphasize community protocols:schools + police + mental health agencies + child welfare services.

3. Investigative, fact-based inquiry

The process pulls from multiple sources: reports, interviews, digital traces, records, environmental factors, and collateral contacts. BTAM is not a one-time judgment; it evolves with new information.

4. Risk mitigation through intervention

Management is the heart of BTAM. Teams reduce risk through direct support, treatment referrals, monitoring, safety plans, workplace/school accommodations, and when needed, legal measures.

5. Not a predictive tool

No system can predict violence with certainty. BTAM reduces uncertainty through context, structure, and coordinated response; not prediction.

Setting up a BTAM program: structure, policy & training

Whether in the U.S. or Canada, a BTAM program rests on four foundational pillars.

1. Leadership and policy foundation

Written policy establishes:

• Purpose and scope

• What behaviors are reportable

• Who participates on the Threat Assessment Team (TAT)

• Information-sharing rules

• Confidentiality and privacy requirements

• Investigation authorities

• Documentation expectations

Canadian considerations

Canadian organizations must align BTAM policies with:

• Federal Harassment and Violence Prevention legislation

• Provincial school board policies

• Freedom of Information & Protection of Privacy Act (FIPPA) and other privacy laws

• Community Threat Assessment Protocols, where active

School districts following BC’s ERASE model must give Fair Notice; informing the community that threat assessment processes are in place and how information will be used.

2. Forming a multidisciplinary Threat Assessment Team (TAT)

Typical core members

• TAT leader or case manager

• Mental health professional

• HR director / student services

• Security or law enforcement liaison

• Legal counsel (consulting basis)

• Communications lead

• Representatives from relevant departments

Smaller organizations can partner with:

• Community mental health agencies

• Local police

• Regional threat-assessment networks

• Canadian Association of Threat Assessment Professionals (CATAP)

Canadian models emphasize community integration

In VTRA and BC ERASE, teams must include law enforcement, mental health, child protection, and school administration together in a coordinated assessment.

3. Reporting & triage pathways

Effective programs make reporting simple, accessible, and safe:

• Anonymous hotlines

• Web forms

• Dedicated email/inbox

• Supervisor or administrator reporting chain

• In-person reporting

Three triage categories

1. Low concern - routine issues managed by regular support services

2. Concerning behavior - triggers TAT review

3. Imminent danger - emergency responders

Canadian school protocols often distinguish between Stage 1 (initial data collection) and Stage 2 (full collaborative assessment).

4. Training & exercises

Training should target both the TAT and the broader organization.

Team training includes:

• BTAM principles

• Behavioral indicators and pathways

• Interviewing and information-gathering

• Case management and intervention strategies

• Privacy and legal considerations

• Tabletop exercises

Community training includes:

• Recognizing concerning behaviors

• How to report

• What happens after a report

• Reducing stigma and encouraging early help-seeking

Canadian school boards often require annual refreshers and cross-sector training with police and community agencies.

The BTAM process: step-by-step operational workflow

Below is a practical model combining NTAC/DHS guidance with Canadian VTRA/ERASE practice.

Step 1 - Receive and document the concern

Capture:

• Who reported it

• When it occurred

• What behavior was observed

• Whether the information is firsthand or second-hand

• Evidence (images, emails, messages, social media, etc.)

Use structured forms for consistency. Canadian VTRA and BC ERASE provide actionable templates.

Step 2 - Triage: urgent vs. non-urgent

If imminent danger is suspected:

Activate emergency responders immediately.

If non-imminent:

Gather initial facts:

• Nature of the behavior

• Any threats or references to violence

• Target(s) if any

• Access to weapons

• Known stressors or destabilizers

• Prior disciplinary, behavioral, or criminal concerns

• Social-media indicators

Step 3 - Conduct a thorough, contextual assessment

Behavioral indicators

• Direct or indirect threats

• “Leakage” (statements revealing intent)

• Fixation or obsession

• Fascination with weapons or prior attacks

• Stalking, harassing, or boundary-breaking behavior

• Dramatic changes in mood, behavior, or worldview

Capability and intent

• Access to weapons

• Skills, planning, or reconnaissance

• Expressed motives or grievances

Motivation & stressors

• Perceived injustice

• Relationship breakdowns

• Academic or workplace failure

• Financial stress

• Substance use

• Mental health pressures

Targeting and pathway behavior

BTAM focuses not on risk “scores,” but on progress toward violence; planning, preparation, reconnaissance, or rehearsals.

Canadian notes

VTRA emphasizes the “empty vessel” concept; the idea that young people often externalize stressors through threats without intent, but these threats still demand assessment and intervention.

Step 4 - Risk formulation and levels

Risk is expressed narratively, not as a prediction:

• What factors raise concern?

• What reduces concern?

• What is the person’s current trajectory?

• What supports or boundaries are needed?

Some teams use low/moderate/high. Others use more descriptive language such as:

• No identifiable pathway

• Concerning behavior but no violent intent identified

• Elevated short-term risk

• High concern for targeted violence

Canadian schools often use Stage 1/Stage 2 assessments to guide severity.

Step 5 - Case management & intervention

Intervention plans are tailored to the specific individual and context.

Common strategies

• Safety plans

• Mental health services, counselling, or rapid-access supports

• Academic/workplace accommodations

• Monitoring or check-ins

• Digital behavior management

• Behavioral agreements

• Third-party notifications

• Law enforcement involvement (if criminal behavior or imminent risk)

• Protective orders

• Workplace leaves, modified duties, or HR interventions

Canadian workplaces

Under federal legislation, employers must:

• Assess harassment/violence risks

• Implement prevention policies

• Investigate incidents

• Provide training

• Offer support and accommodations

BTAM processes can help employers meet these obligations.

Canadian school considerations

Protocols often include:

• Parental involvement

• Collaborative case reviews

• Mental-health and child-welfare referrals

• Safety planning with police

• Return-to-school or return-to-class plans

Step 6 - Closure & long-term follow-up

A case is closed when:

• The concerning behavior has stopped

• Supports are in place

• No current pathway is identified

• The person’s situation has stabilized

Some cases require long-term monitoring, especially when risk factors are persistent.

Operational tools and templates

Widely used templates and guides include: 

• NTAC threat-assessment guides

• DHS BTAM practice resources

• CSTAG (University of Virginia) school forms

• VTRA and BC ERASE Canadian school protocols

• Workplace harassment/violence risk assessment tools (Canada)

• Provincial Community Threat Assessment Protocols (Ontario, BC, Alberta)

Canadian BTAM frameworks - integrated overview

Below is a consolidated summary of the Canadian-specific content incorporated into the article.

1. Canadian Association of Threat Assessment Professionals (CATAP)

The leading professional association in Canada for threat assessment, bringing together experts from policing, mental health, education, security, and government. CATAP provides training, standards, and an annual national conference.

2. BC ERASE and BC Threat Assessment Protocol

British Columbia’s ERASE (Expect Respect & A Safe Education) initiative provides a province-wide threat-assessment approach that includes:

• Fair Notice requirements

• Stage 1 and Stage 2 assessments

• Multidisciplinary school + community teams

• Cross-sector information sharing

• Detailed management guidelines

3. Violence Threat Risk Assessment (VTRA) model

Used widely across Canada (particularly Western Canada), VTRA includes:

• Early data collection

• Imminence assessment

• Multi-agency collaboration

• Emphasis on trauma-informed practice

• Reintegration and follow-up plans

4. Workplace violence and harassment legislation

Canadian federal law requires employers to:

• Create a Harassment and Violence Prevention Policy

• Conduct regular risk assessments

• Provide training

• Investigate incidents

• Maintain records

• Offer support and accommodation

BTAM processes help fulfill these obligations by establishing reliable reporting, assessment, and management procedures.

5. Community Threat Assessment Protocols (Ontario + others)

Many school boards, police services, and social agencies (e.g., Rainbow District School Board) participate in formal community agreements that guide:

• Information sharing

• Joint assessments

• Interventions and safety planning

• Case review and follow-up

• Multi-agency collaboration

Real-world examples and case studies

U.S. examples (NTAC, DHS, CSTAG)

• Identification of leakage leading to early intervention

• Combined mental health + law enforcement action halting planned attacks

• School-based interventions that avoid punitive discipline while addressing risk

Canadian examples

• A BC school using ERASE protocols to rapidly mobilize school staff, police, and mental-health teams after a student made online threats, resulting in immediate support and no further escalation

• An Ontario school board activating Stage 2 community protocols after stalking behavior was reported, leading to mental health assessment, family support, and safety planning

• A private-sector Canadian employer using the federal Violence Prevention Policy framework to investigate behavioral threats, intervene early, and provide employee assistance

These examples demonstrate the shared BTAM principles across borders: early reporting, multidisciplinary action, and supportive intervention.

Legal, ethical, and privacy considerations

Privacy

• U.S.: FERPA, HIPAA, state statutes

• Canada: FIPPA, MFIPPA, PHIPA, provincial education acts

Equity and non-discrimination

Threat assessment must avoid conflating protected characteristics with risk. Focus exclusively on behavior and context.

Documentation

Comprehensive notes allow defensibility, transparency, and continuity.

Use of involuntary interventions

Hospitalization, police involvement, or legal restrictions must follow appropriate legal frameworks and professional standards.

Common pitfalls - and how to avoid them

1. Using profiles instead of behavior

2. Ignoring early warning signs

3. Poor documentation

4. Siloed communication

5. Lack of training or refreshers

6. No follow-up once a case is “closed”

Metrics & continuous improvement

Process-focused indicators provide the most meaningful evaluation:

• Volume of reports

• Response time

• Number of cases connected to support services

• Reduction in repeat incidents

• Stakeholder feedback

• Compliance with privacy and reporting standards

• Annual reviews and training completion rates

Final recommendations

1. Train your people - Competence and collaboration matter more than any form or checklist.

2. Make reporting easy - The simpler the process, the earlier concerns surface.

3. Document everything - Clear, defensible records protect individuals and organizations.

4. Center support and connection - BTAM is ultimately about helping people before crises emerge.

5. Collaborate across sectors - Safety is shared: schools, police, mental health, workplaces, and communities must work together.

References

Canadian Association of Threat Assessment Professionals. (n.d.). Home. https://www.catap.ca/homeBritish Columbia Ministry of Education. (n.d.). Maintaining school safety: A guide for school & police personnel in B.C. https://www2.gov.bc.ca/assets/gov/erase/documents/school-safety/maintaining-school-safety-guide-for-school-and-police-personnel-in-bc.pdfBritish Columbia Ministry of Education. (n.d.). Behavioural & digital threat assessment (BDTA) management guide (B.C.). https://20202517.fs1.hubspotusercontent-na1.net/hubfs/20202517/Files%20and%20Resources/BDTA%20%28B.C.%29/BC%20BDTA%20Management%20Guide.pdfEmployment and Social Development Canada. (n.d.). Harassment & violence prevention: Requirements for employers. https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/workplace-health-safety/harassment-violence-prevention.htmlEmployment and Social Development Canada. (n.d.). Workplace harassment & violence prevention: Risk assessment tool. https://www.canada.ca/en/employment-social-development/programs/workplace-health-safety/harassment-violence-prevention/risk-assessment-tool.html

U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2025, February 14). Behavioral Threat Assessment & Management (BTAM) in Practice. https://www.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/2025-02/2025_0214_cp3_behavioral-threat-assessment-and-management-in-practice.pdfU.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center. (2024, October). Behavioral Threat Assessment Units: A Guide for State and Local Law Enforcement to Prevent Targeted Violence. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://www.secretservice.gov/sites/default/files/reports/2024-10/Behavioral-Threat-Assessment-Units-A-Guide-for-State-and-Local-Law-Enforcement-to-Prevent-Targeted-Violence.pdfU.S. Secret Service National Threat Assessment Center. (2018, July). Enhancing School Safety Using a Threat Assessment Model: An Operational Guide for Preventing Targeted School Violence. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/18_0711_USSS_NTAC-Enhancing-School-Safety-Guide.pdf

SIGMA Threat Management & SENSEMAKERS. (n.d.). Behavioral Threat Assessment & Management: A Cross Sector Guide for Communities Assessing & Managing Threats and Other Troubling Behavior. https://www.bayareauasi.org/sites/default/files/resources/Cross_Sector_BTAM_Guide_FINAL_0.pdf

Minaz Jivraj MSc., C.P.P., C.F.E., C.F.E.I., C.C.F.I.-C., I.C.P.S., C.C.T.P.

Disclaimer:The information provided in this blog/article is for general informational purposes only and reflects the personal opinions of the author. It is not intended as legal advice and should not be relied upon as such. While every effort has been made to ensure the accuracy of the content, the author makes no representations or warranties about its completeness or suitability for any particular purpose. Readers are encouraged to seek professional legal advice specific to their situation.